gender, culture and power in african and middle eastern works

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the complexities of social, political, and cultural issues in African and Middle Eastern literature through the works of Fatima Mernissi (Teras Terlarang), Ibrahim Fawal (My Salwa My Palestine), and Carmen bin Laden (Inside the Kingdom). The central issue explored is the intersection of gender, power, and identity within socio-political contexts shaped by historical struggles, patriarchal norms, and cultural expectations. The purpose of this study is to investigate how these literary works portray personal and collective resistance against oppression while reflecting broader societal conflicts. The research adopts a qualitative literary analysis method, focusing on textual interpretation and thematic exploration. Data is collected through close reading of the selected works, supported by secondary sources on feminist, postcolonial, and cultural theories. The analysis reveals recurring themes of identity negotiation, resistance to patriarchal and colonial structures, and the quest for personal freedom within restrictive cultural environments. The study highlights how literature can serve as a platform for addressing sensitive socio-political issues while advocating for change. It concludes that these narratives transcend individual struggles, offering valuable insights into the broader discourse of human rights and justice in the Islamic world. This contributes to a deeper understanding of gender, culture, and political complexity in contemporary literature.

Keywords: Culture, Gender, Identity, Literature, Politics.

ABSTRAK: Artikel ini mengkaji kompleksitas isu sosial, politik, dan budaya dalam sastra Afrika dan Timur Tengah melalui karya Fatima Mernissi (Teras Terlarang), Ibrahim Fawal (My Salwa My Palestine), dan Carmen bin Laden (Inside the Kingdom). Isu utama yang dieksplorasi adalah persimpangan antara gender, kekuasaan, dan identitas dalam konteks sosial-politik yang dibentuk oleh perjuangan sejarah, norma patriarkal, dan ekspektasi budaya. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis bagaimana karya-karya sastra ini menggambarkan perlawanan pribadi dan kolektif terhadap penindasan sambil mencerminkan konflik sosial yang lebih luas. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode analisis sastra kualitatif dengan pendekatan interpretasi tekstual dan eksplorasi tematik. Data dikumpulkan melalui pembacaan mendalam terhadap karya-karya terpilih dan didukung oleh sumber-sumber sekunder yang membahas teori feminisme, pascakolonialisme, dan budaya. Hasil analisis menunjukkan tema-tema yang berulang seperti negosiasi identitas, perlawanan terhadap struktur patriarki dan kolonial, serta upaya mencari kebebasan pribadi dalam lingkungan budaya yang membatasi. Penelitian ini menyoroti bagaimana sastra dapat menjadi wadah untuk membahas isu sosial-politik yang sensitif sekaligus memperjuangkan perubahan. Kesimpulannya, narasi-narasi ini melampaui perjuangan individu, menawarkan wawasan berharga tentang hak asasi manusia dan keadilan dalam dunia Islam kontemporer.

Kata Kunci: Budaya, Gender, Identitas, Literatur, Politik

INTRODUCTION

The complex intersection of culture, gender, and identity in African and Middle Eastern literature reflects a long history of socio-political struggles, deeply intertwined with colonialism, patriarchy, and shifting cultural norms. This paper explores the thematic concerns of gender, power, and identity in the works of Fatima Mernissi (Teras Terlarang), Ibrahim Fawal (My Salwa My Palestine), and Carmen bin Laden (Inside the Kingdom). The primary issue addressed in this study is how these authors represent the struggles of individuals and societies within cultures shaped by colonialism, patriarchy, and political oppression. In each work, personal narratives of resistance against oppressive systems are set against broader socio-political backdrops that inform the characters' identities and actions.

The problem of study lies in understanding how these authors address complex socio-cultural issues, especially focusing on how gender, culture, and identity intersect in the Islamic world and the broader Middle Eastern and North African context. The literature from these regions often grapples with questions of modernity, colonial influence, and the quest for autonomy within traditionally restrictive societies. By examining these texts, the study aims to uncover the ways in which these narratives reflect struggles for both personal freedom and social justice, while challenging the historical and cultural limitations imposed on individuals---especially women.

The objective of this study is to analyze how gender and power relations are portrayed in the selected works, and how these literary pieces contribute to broader conversations surrounding resistance, identity, and cultural preservation in postcolonial societies. This paper also aims to understand how literature in these contexts becomes a form of political and social resistance, providing a platform for marginalized voices to challenge dominant cultural narratives.

To guide this analysis, feminist theory, particularly postcolonial feminism, serves as the primary theoretical framework. Scholars like Chandra Talpade Mohanty and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak argue that postcolonial feminist thought critically examines how gender and colonialism intersect, especially in societies where patriarchal structures are reinforced by colonial histories. Additionally, Edward Said's theory of Orientalism will inform the exploration of how the West has historically constructed narratives about the East, often marginalizing indigenous voices in the process. This critical lens allows for a deeper understanding of how Mernissi, Fawal, and bin Laden engage with these external and internal forces shaping their characters' lives.

Moreover, Michel Foucault's ideas about power and resistance offer valuable insight into the ways these authors depict individual struggles against oppressive structures. Foucault's concept of power as not just top-down but embedded in daily practices helps to illuminate the subtle ways in which characters resist societal norms, often in ways that challenge the status quo without overt confrontation. This theoretical approach will be used to analyze the characters' actions, the spaces they inhabit, and the ways in which they navigate their identities in relation to dominant cultural forces.

Ultimately, this paper aims to answer the question: How do the works of Mernissi, Fawal, and bin Laden illustrate the complexities of gender, identity, and power in African and Middle Eastern societies? By using feminist and postcolonial theoretical frameworks, this study will show how these authors' narratives offer nuanced critiques of colonialism, patriarchy, and socio-political constraints, and how they contribute to a broader discourse on human rights, gender equality, and cultural identity in the contemporary Islamic world.

METHOD

This research employs a qualitative literary analysis approach, as it focuses on the in-depth exploration of thematic elements, character development, and narrative structures within the selected literary works: Teras Terlarang by Fatima Mernissi, My Salwa My Palestine by Ibrahim Fawal, and Inside the Kingdom by Carmen bin Laden. The goal of this study is to examine how these works address the complexities of gender, identity, and socio-political power in African and Middle Eastern societies, particularly through the lens of postcolonial feminism and critical cultural theories. The qualitative approach allows for a detailed interpretation of the texts, highlighting the subtle ways in which literature engages with political, cultural, and gender-related issues. The data collection for this study involves close reading and textual analysis of the three selected literary works. The primary data is drawn from these texts, focusing on key themes such as gender dynamics, identity formation, resistance, and the representation of social and political struggles. Secondary data is gathered from scholarly articles, books, and academic journals that provide insights into postcolonial feminism, cultural identity, and the socio-political contexts of the Middle East and North Africa. These secondary sources help frame the literary works within broader theoretical and historical discourses. The data source consists primarily of the three literary works: Teras Terlarang, My Salwa My Palestine, and Inside the Kingdom. In addition to these primary sources, secondary literature related to feminist theory, postcolonial studies, and cultural studies are used to inform the analysis. These secondary materials help contextualize the works within the intellectual frameworks of postcolonial feminism, gender studies, and the socio-political history of the African and Middle Eastern regions. The data type is both textual and theoretical. The primary data comes from the literary texts themselves, specifically focusing on their thematic and narrative content. This includes character interactions, plot development, symbols, and metaphors used to address issues of gender, power, and identity. The secondary data consists of theoretical and scholarly sources that provide critical frameworks for analyzing the primary texts, particularly in terms of feminist theory, postcolonial discourse, and cultural studies. This combination of primary and secondary data enables a holistic and nuanced analysis of the texts. Data analysis is carried out through a feminist and postcolonial lens, using critical literary approaches to examine how each text portrays gender relations, colonial histories, and cultural identity. The study applies feminist theory to explore the representation of women's agency, resistance, and empowerment in each of the works. Postcolonial theory, particularly the works of Edward Said and Homi K. Bhabha, is used to analyze how colonialism and its legacy are represented in the literature. The analysis will also consider Michel Foucault's ideas of power and resistance to explore how characters challenge societal norms and navigate their identities in restrictive cultural and political environments. The research aims to identify the intersection of these themes and how they contribute to broader discussions on gender, power, and identity in the context of postcolonial literature.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

FINDINGS

The analysis of Teras Terlarang by Fatima Mernissi, My Salwa My Palestine by Ibrahim Fawal, and Inside the Kingdom by Carmen bin Laden reveals several key thematic patterns in the representation of gender, power, and identity within the socio-political context of the Middle East and North Africa. Through a close reading of these works, the following significant findings emerged:

Representation of Gender Dynamics: All three works showcase the gender struggles within patriarchal societies, where women navigate oppressive systems and assert their agency. In Teras Terlarang, Mernissi illustrates women's resistance against traditional roles, using the harem as a metaphor for both confinement and liberation. Similarly, Fawal's My Salwa My Palestine portrays the complex intersection of gender and nationalism, with women participating in the resistance movement, challenging both colonialism and patriarchy. In Inside the Kingdom, Carmen bin Laden addresses the limitations placed on women in Saudi society, emphasizing their struggle for personal freedom and empowerment. Women in these works are portrayed not just as passive victims of their environments, but as active agents of change, reflecting the broader socio-political shifts in their respective regions.

Political and Colonial Struggles: The theme of colonialism and its lingering effects is prominent in the texts. In My Salwa My Palestine, Fawal illustrates how the Palestinian identity is shaped by both colonial and post-colonial struggles. Mernissi's work delves into the socio-political repercussions of colonialism in Morocco, particularly how gender relations were reshaped by colonial forces. Bin Laden, in her memoir, touches upon the influence of Western ideals on Saudi Arabian society, as well as the internal colonialism faced by women within the Kingdom. This theme of colonial legacy is central to understanding the complexity of the socio-cultural and political issues faced by women in these societies.

Identity and Resistance: Across the texts, the characters' search for identity and the expression of resistance are central themes. Whether through the personal rebellion of Mernissi's female characters, the activism of Fawal's protagonists, or the challenges faced by women in Saudi Arabia as described by bin Laden, identity becomes a powerful tool for resistance. These works reveal how women in the Middle East and North Africa navigate personal and collective struggles, challenging both internal and external forms of oppression. The exploration of identity is also linked to the broader national identity, especially in Fawal's and bin Laden's works, where personal and cultural identity intersect with larger national struggles.

Cultural Expectations and Societal Limitations: Another important finding is how each text explores the tension between traditional cultural values and the modern aspirations of the characters. In Mernissi's Teras Terlarang, the conflict between Moroccan tradition and the desire for personal freedom is evident. The women in the narrative constantly confront societal expectations that restrict their movements, choices, and self-expression. Similarly, in Inside the Kingdom, Carmen bin Laden highlights the contradictions within Saudi society, where modernity and traditionalism clash, particularly regarding women's rights. This tension between tradition and modernity provides a critical framework for understanding the characters' actions and decisions.

These findings are further clarified in the table below, which summarizes the key thematic elements and their occurrences in the selected works:

Theme

Teras Terlarang (Mernissi)

My Salwa My Palestine (Fawal)

Inside the Kingdom 

(Bin Laden)

Gender Resistance

Women challenging traditional roles through agency

Women participating in the Palestinian resistance movement

Women's struggle for autonomy in a patriarchal Saudi society

Colonialism

The effects of French colonialism on gender relations

The impact of Israeli occupation on Palestinian identity

Influence of Westernization and internal Saudi colonialism on women

Identity and Empowerment

Reclaiming identity through resistance

National identity intertwined with gender and resistance

Personal empowerment in a restrictive social environment

ANALYSIS

The data gathered from the thematic analysis of these literary works shows how each author grapples with the complex intersections of gender, colonialism, and identity within their respective socio-political contexts. These works are reflective of their environments, where gender dynamics are inextricably linked to political struggles and cultural norms.

Using postcolonial feminist theory, particularly Chandra Talpade Mohanty's concept of "colonial discourse" (2003), it becomes evident that all three works portray how colonialism not only impacts national identity but also reshapes gender norms. Mernissi's depiction of the harem in Teras Terlarang serves as a metaphor for the colonial intrusion into Moroccan society, where patriarchal traditions were both imposed and reinforced by colonial rulers. Fawal's narrative, My Salwa My Palestine, shows how colonialism's physical occupation of land intersects with the emotional and social constraints placed upon Palestinian women. As women actively engage in the resistance, they simultaneously resist the colonizer and the patriarchy that seeks to limit their roles. Similarly, Carmen bin Laden's memoir illustrates how Saudi women's efforts for personal freedom are shaped by both Western influences and the rigid patriarchal structures within their own society.

The application of Michel Foucault's theory of power and resistance (1978) further enhances our understanding of how the characters in these works express resistance. Foucault's idea that power is not merely top-down but also embedded in daily practices resonates strongly with Mernissi's exploration of internalized patriarchal control. For example, in Teras Terlarang, the harem, while symbolizing confinement, is also a site of resistance where women reclaim control over their lives through subtle acts of defiance. Similarly, in Fawal's My Salwa My Palestine, the Palestinian women's resistance is both a political act and a personal, internal struggle against gender norms that restrict their participation in the national cause.

These literary works demonstrate how resistance is not simply about overt political actions but also about personal empowerment and the ability to navigate oppressive systems. The findings highlight the importance of literature in offering a voice to marginalized individuals and providing a space for the exploration of gender, identity, and political resistance. Through these texts, the authors not only illuminate the struggles of women in the Middle East and North Africa but also offer insights into broader global discussions of gender equality, colonialism, and identity.

CONCLUSION

This research explored the intersection of gender, identity, and socio-political struggles in the works of Fatima Mernissi (Teras Terlarang), Ibrahim Fawal (My Salwa My Palestine), and Carmen bin Laden (Inside the Kingdom), revealing how these authors address themes of resistance, colonialism, and empowerment within the contexts of the Middle East and North Africa. The analysis demonstrated that these literary works offer nuanced portrayals of women's agency in patriarchal societies, while also shedding light on the impact of colonial and postcolonial histories on gender dynamics and cultural identities. Through their characters' struggles for personal and collective empowerment, these texts highlight the complex ways in which women challenge and resist oppressive systems, both political and cultural.

The findings underscore the importance of literature as a tool for exploring and critiquing societal issues, particularly the intersections of gender, power, and colonialism. These works not only provide insight into the historical and cultural contexts of the Islamic world but also contribute to broader global discussions on gender equality, postcolonial resistance, and identity formation. By focusing on marginalized voices, these authors offer a vision of empowerment that transcends individual struggles and invites a broader conversation on social justice and human rights.

The logical consequence of this research in the context of Islamic education lies in its potential to challenge traditional narratives and encourage more inclusive, critical perspectives in the study of Islamic culture and literature. It calls for the integration of feminist and postcolonial approaches into Islamic educational curricula, particularly in exploring the roles of women within both historical and contemporary contexts. By fostering critical thinking and offering a space for questioning cultural and religious norms, this research contributes to the development of a more nuanced and progressive approach to Islamic education. In practice, it encourages educators to engage with texts that promote gender equality, social justice, and the empowerment of marginalized groups, fostering a more inclusive and equitable understanding of Islamic thought and culture.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to those who have supported me throughout the process of writing this journal. First and foremost, I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my lecturer, R. Myrna Nur Sakinah, M.Hum., whose guidance, encouragement, and invaluable insights have been instrumental in shaping this research. Her expertise in the field of literature, especially in the context of the Islamic world, has provided me with a solid foundation and inspired me to approach this topic with a critical and thoughtful perspective. Her constructive feedback and thoughtful suggestions have enriched my understanding and approach to the material, and I am truly grateful for her patience and dedication in guiding me through the writing process.

I also wish to extend my deepest gratitude to my family for their unwavering support and love. To my parents, thank you for always believing in me and providing the emotional and practical support I needed to pursue my academic goals. Your constant encouragement has been a source of strength throughout this journey. To my siblings, thank you for your understanding and for always being there for me, offering both words of encouragement and a sense of humor when needed.

A special thank you goes to my friends, who have been a constant source of motivation and inspiration. Your friendship has made the challenging moments more bearable, and your perspectives and discussions have played a significant role in shaping my ideas for this journal. Thank you for your emotional support, encouragement, and for always reminding me of the bigger picture when the journey seemed overwhelming.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the invaluable contributions of the authors and researchers whose works I have referenced in this journal. Their groundbreaking research has been a crucial resource for understanding the complexities of the issues explored in this study.

This journal would not have been possible without the collective support of these incredible individuals, and for that, I am deeply thankful.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mernissi, F. (1991). Teras Terlarang. Terjemahan oleh Siti Maemunah. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Fawal, I. (2012). My Salwa My Palestine. Cairo: Al-Ahram.

Bin Laden, C. (2005). Inside the Kingdom. New York: PublicAffairs.

Mohanty, C. T. (2003). Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses. Feminist Review, 30(1), 61-88

Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient.

Foucault, M. (1978). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison.