How to Understand Globalization

Globalization is often seen as a contested term. The discourse of globalization as a unique and a new term has emerged in western traditions (Sen 2002, 2). Positioning that globalization as a tradition born as the result of the western civilization will bring mystification to this phenomenon in the modern approach paradigm (Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 34). In addition, globalization is a new phenomenon emerged later as the impact of western imperialism and the development of modern industrialization. This view was firmly opposed by post-colonial thinkers who stressed that globalization is not a new phenomenon (Sen 2002; Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 4).

This essay seeks to explain that globalization is a historical process that has existed long ago. Globalization here is understood as an interaction process that continues to run dynamically throughout history in contexts and relations that influence each other. To emphasize the historical context that influences the pattern of global community interaction, this essay will briefly examine the argument in two stages, namely before the modern and post-modern century. This is expected to provide an explanation of the uniqueness and character of globalization that runs historically and positions the cultural system as something risen from that contexts and histories.

Beginning the explanation whather globalization is a new or not phenomenon, it is significant to see the interaction process that involves encounter between various local and global elements that have a unique form in history. This argument argue against the view that history occur in a linear and transhistorical manner. However, the nature of globalization that we experience today must be placed in a dynamic historical context. Vasquez and Marquardt mention two important momentum for interactions that transcend translocal, namely the world empire and the world system. 

According to them, the imperial system that emerged thousands of years ago originated from the human need to cultivate and create the first transportation technology that allows control in a centralized system of government. This can be seen from various early civilizations that emerged in history such as ancient Rome and China, Mogul of India, and Ottoman Turkey (Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 36). Obviously, this period has fundamental limitations in terms of interaction. This empire system will be very dependent on the position and the strong availability of military reserves and units that are mutually limited to one another. Thus, the principle of meeting and interaction between communities is the result of the desire to influence, conquer and control various resources that are in the name of the interests of the kingdom or the central government. However, this initially provides interactions that reach distant routes such as land territorial borders.

Consequently, this context rises a view that contrasts western and eastern dualism as a results in a narrow view of the process of interplay between western and eastern civilizations. Amartya Sen (2002) further explains that "globalization has contributed to the progress of the world through travel, trade, migration and spread of cultural influences and dissemination of knowledge and understanding" (2). In the early days of this period of human interaction which took place thousands of years ago, there has been a world achievement that took place through "the active agents of globalization" (Sen 2002, 2). For some extent, high technologies like  "paper, the printing press, the crossbow, gunpowder, the iron-chain suspension, bridge, the kite, the magnetic compass, the wheelbarrow and the rotary fan... these items were used extensively in China" (Sen 2002, 3).  

Furthermore, eastern influence on the west can be seen from the development of his knowledge such as mathematics, namely the emergence of a decimal system which had been developed in India between the second and sixth centuries AD and was used by western mathematicians afterwards. According to  Amartya Sen, "these mathematical innovations reached Europe mainly in the last quarter of the tenth century and began having an impact in the early years of the last millennium" (2002, 3). This view confirms that the interaction process runs dynamically and dialectically. This then explains that at the beginning of the period there have been various productions of civilization and technology born from various traditions in the world.        

Furthermore, if the process of interaction between people intertwined and interplayed, then it will bring to that there have been various patterns of collective or personal identity. Anderson called the collective identity with "the religious community and dynastic realm" (Anderson 2006, 12). Anderson's explanation here can be used as an affirmation of the process of cultural transfer in the initial dynamics of human interaction. Here, it has been an important role of religion as a system called the paradigm of world religion, namely the major religions that play an important role in the power structure of various empires in the world. Vasquez and Marquardt exemplifies "the role of Buddhism under Ashoka's empire in India (272-232 BCE), and Confucianism in China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)(Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 35). 

Furthermore, Anderson mentioned that as a religious community, the spread of religion through this religious network has taken place in history. For instance, "the vast territorial stretch of the Islam Ummah from Morocco to the Sulu Archipelago, of Christendom from Paraguay to Japan, and of the Buddhist world from Srilanka to the Korean Peninsula" (2006, 12). However, translocal integration patterns are limited and relatively encompassing "the lives of the vast majority of inhabitants in the heterogenous cultures and societies... culture and religious sycretisim was limited to cosmopolitan urban centers and port towns (Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 36). Historically speaking, the nature of cultural interaction at this stage explains the momentum of the rise of universal world religion paradigm. This classic community in Anderson's view was an important factor that led to the realization of an early community inspired by the spirit of universal religion (2006, 13).

So, is it when the massive influence of modernization and industrialization that is the nature of the modern century (1400 CE) really transfers a new pattern of global interaction? Inevitably, the modern age has provided a variety of colors and a stronger in the global community interaction system. Vasquez and Marquardt called it "thick globalization" (37). Vasquez and Marquardt argue that a significant moment occurred at the beginning of the 14th century which marked the birth of a new modern system as a result of the previous feudalism crisis. The embryo of this modern system emerged as a result of the massive industrialization that inspired a new system of production known as the capitalist mode of production (Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 36). The real consequence of the development of the world system in the early modern period not only allowed the interaction process to reach new routes of trade through the development of massive transportation, but also the advanced level of technological development included an increase in translocal integration of mixing elements of both core and periphery.

Resource limitations cause a nation that has a centralized military power to spread its power to new colonies. At this time, it would be the emergence of new consciousness of the importance of fighting for ideology, politics and economics. The interests of this production system inspire the birth of the spirit of imperialism and colonialism. Subsequently, in the period of the development of civilization which is characterized by modernity, this universality and rationality has a further effect, namely colonialism and imperialism. Th community distinction were clearly distinguished between colonizing and colonized people, and also between advanced and tribal civilizations. Likewise, religion as a social system continues to be pursued in line with religion originating from its colonies. This process is called the missionary movement (Anderson 2006, 45). In this regard, power produces that process is in line with the internalizing the cultural values of the colonial state through a single authority that defines religion. In Islam, power is in the authority of the Ottoman Turks. Likewise, in Catholicism, the authority is in the Roman church. Here, I argue that the significance of religious authority over the society.

The previous tendency of power relation continually influences the historical process that took place dynamically the emergence of new spaces for the need of the reterritorialization. This analytical tools of globalization tend to see the emergence of a new identity which is marked by the initial period of the world system which is considered as "current episode of globalization" (Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 38). It seems to take place in the period early before world war and post-cold war. Vasquez dan Marquardt mention the characteristics of this new episode to several important points, namely "transition from Fordism to flexible production, transnational migration and the crisis of assimilationism, post-colonialism and relativization of the nation-state, culture at large: links to post-modernism, and form representation to virtual reality" (see Vasquez and Marquardt, n.d., 38--49). I suppose that this trend revolving around five main points, namely, production, migration, nation state, new culture and virtual reality. These five points explain the main elements that shape new interaction patterns in the dynamics of post-modern globalization. However, more deeply, there are three main points that can be considered as points of contestation in the historical discourse of globalization of this recent trend, namely the nation state, new culture and virtual reality.

First, the nation state becomes a direct result of modern character which has a spirit of universalization. Anderson understands the process of the emergence of this nation-state is inspired by the context and global realities that have existed before. If, in the initial context of globalization the pattern of interaction occurs in the local sphere that transforms through its various encounters with new identities, then the birth of the State is something that is considered imagined. Here, Anderson mentions new interests to realize territorial boundaries which are called nations "imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign" (2006, 6). The attention of power is no longer trying to create new powers where there is a system of centralized power that is global, but the main concern is precisely bound to the limit of national spirit where people begin to define themselves based on ancestry, religion, language, history value, customs, and institution (Huntington, 1996).

Furthermore, global interactions in the period that followed the birth of this nation state were "In the post-Cold War world, for the first time in history, global politics has become multipolar and multicivilizational" (Huntington, 1996, 21). In this case, an important distinction in human interaction is about culture. Huntington calls this period a new form of world conflict but is concentrated on the struggle between civilizations and ethnicities. Here, the position of religion as part of political identity becomes significant. Huntington's thesis attempts to explain that there has been a new civilization conflict caused by religious differences as happened in various parts of the world. However, this thesis on the clash of civilization is unable to explain that in some regions and nations precisely the conflict between civilizations does not occur significantly.

Continuing the point that Anderson has explained about Imagined community, the period of technological civilization has shaped virtual global interactions (Lim 2012, 128; Vasquez and Marquardt 2003, 48). If in Anderson's imagination, that the spirit of forming the nation is influenced by the availability of material such as the media, the technology that enables communication, then Lim further mentions the deeper form of communication in the form of a phase to face reality. Lim mentioned in this case that  "the Internet is assumed to allow community is also commonly extended to other forms of communities, such as ethnic, regional, and religious communities such as ummah" (2012, 137). However, interestingly is that when the internet allows it to occur "the rapid flow of information, images and ideas" (137),.. "There are significant differences and tensions across nation-states and cultures despite shared religious identities (138).

The explanation above has provided an important picture to understand the process of globalization as a continuation of the dynamics that have been running throughout the history of mankind. The division of history into two phases, namely the early centuries before the modern and the post-modern century became a significant momentum in seeing the dialectics of the history of globalization. In the early historical moments, before the modern century (1400 CE), understanding the process of globalization was about the dynamics and processes of global interaction that demanded a historical process that reproduced and contested in a certain time and space. Some of the dominant patterns include imagery through trading in various parts of the continent. This then has an impact on the process of transfer of knowledge and early civilization. Religion has colored each of these processes and dynamics as the initial phase under empire control and centralized power. Meanwhile, in the post-modern period, which is after 1400, there was a peak of massive global interaction. The momentum of history at this time is marked by the emergence of new spaces of rapid interaction through technological developments. At this moment, the social interaction system began to touch civilizations that were difficult to reach like indigenous communities. Various practices of belief and tradition are almost certainly touched by the outside world.

In this case, Anderson confirmed that "Globalization is not just about the flows of ideas, goods, people, and capital but also about the practices and organizational structures of territorialized actors like migrants, the state, and churches (Anderson 2006, 6). If the effort to understand globalization cannot be separated from the local context and patterns of interaction that are very unique and different from one another, then there is no interest in understanding globalization as something new or not. Such efforts are tantamount to understanding the emergence of ideas as transhistorical. In fact, understanding social change and the various patterns of interaction within it cannot be separated from the historical context and actors in the power relations that shape it. The consequence of this, furthermore, is that a unique variety of variations in human history will not necessarily reduce the complexities or attempt to see it uniformly. But in every single element of it, there is diversity and uniqueness of the results of the articulation and dialectics across human civilizations.        

 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Anderson, Benedict. 2006. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Nationalism. London and New York: Verso.

Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilization and the Remarking of World Order.

Lim, Merlyna. 2012. "Life Is Local in the Imagined Global Community: Islam and Politics in the Indonesian Blogosphere." Journal of Media and Religion 11 (3): 127--40.

Sen, Amartya. 2002. "How to Judge Globalism." The American Prospect 13 (1): A2--6.

Vasquez, Manuel A., and Marie Friedmann Marquardt. 2003. Globalizing the Sacred: Religion Across the Americas. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.