Ecocentrism, Antrophocentrism In Philosophy and Environmental Ethics

Introduction

The environmental catastrophe that humanity faces on a worldwide scale at the start of the twenty-first century has sparked a renewed awareness of how to handle nature and the environment as habitats and sources of life. The environmental catastrophe is ultimately what will cause humanity to become its own victim, not an attempt to increase the welfare of mankind. 

The numerous catastrophes that always appear in news reports---wars, floods, illnesses, famines, and conflicts---become proof that the effects of the environmental crisis have already materialized and are happening right in front of our eyes. 

The environmental problem and efforts to advance human welfare both call for fundamental rethinking. Is it ethical to treat the environment poorly in order to advance human welfare? Is there a theory that can be utilized as a guide for evaluating the environment?

The notion of ecocentrism holds that everything, both living and nonliving, has intrinsic value. Ecocentrism, which arranges human moral standing in relation to all life and things by treating all of them equally, is a philosophy within environmental ethics. While anthropocentrism, as it is commonly known, is an environmental ethical theory that places man at the center of the cosmos.

Discussion

Humans use the environment as a place to move around in while engaging in social activities that utilize all areas of the space in accordance with the basic human requirements that motivate these activities. A specific space is occupied by people, along with bodies, plants, and animals. 

Non-living things like air, which is made up of many gases, water in the forms of liquid, solid, and steam, soil, and stone are also present in that area. The environment of a living thing is the area that a living thing occupies, along with any other living or non-living things that may be present. In addition, Campbell asserted that there are, generally speaking, two different types of environments: the biotic environment and the physical environment. 

First, the physical environment is made up of all inanimate items and natural phenomena that surround a person, such as air, water, rocks, minerals, and other liquids. This physical environment has a close relationship with the living things that live there. 

For instance, the minerals in a soil affect its fertility, which has a close relationship with the plants that thrive there. Second, the biotic environment includes everything that is alive and surrounds people, including plants, animals, and humans. Each biotic component engages in interactions with other biotics, with the physical environment, and with the abiotic environment.

Environmental history as a field of study is not new. According to Western experts, environmental history dates back to the time of Plato and Lao Tse (Krech III, McNeill, Merchant [ed], 2004). There was a presumption during Plato's time that man's involvement in the environment's evolution could not be separated. Many scientists later on focused their research on environmental issues.

Formally, the processes that occurred in America cannot be isolated from the emergence of environmental history. The American Society of Environmental History was founded in America in 1977. The emergence of a formal history of the environment was noted in this instance.

The development of reciprocal relationships between humans and the environment has been the subject of several studies, which have culminated in the discipline of environmental history. approaches to understanding environmental behaviors based on anthropocentrism and ecocentrism.

The study of environmental ethics focuses on how people should treat the environment. Non-human beings are given consideration in this ethics. Humans seem to have lost their orientation in their dealings with nature. Christopher William Hrynkow writes ''Ecologcial crisis'' invokes the dearth of sustainability that is inherent in the cumulative impact of human existence on the planet.

An anthropocentrism viewpoint holds that man and his interests come first in this world. In this situation, nature is being used solely to further human interests and well-being. Ecocentrism, on the other hand, takes the opposing tack by placing nature's interests ahead of those of people and other species. Because anthropocentrism and ecocentrism are understood differently, there is a power struggle as a result.

The actual or perceived fights originate from several discourses and take place in public. To gain control over the conversation and sway others, participants engage in discourse wars.

What is it Ecocentrism?

Ecocentrism prioritizes the ecosystem as a whole rather than viewing the environment through the lens of human needs or interests. It focuses on abiotic (nonliving) elements of Earth's ecosystems as well as the moral value and interests of every species. Contrary to biocentrism, ecocentrism emphasizes the Earth, or "ecosphere," as the most significant central value instead of all living things having equal value.

Ecocentrism is a way of thinking or philosophy that does not prioritize one ecosystem over another. Ecocentrists emphasize the intrinsic worth of each of these things in and of themselves while also recognizing their usefulness to one another as a function of nature. For instance, bees are important for pollination even though they can be dangerous to some individuals. 

Our natural habitat would not be sustained without bees. Bees are therefore appreciated (or devalued) for their intrinsic worth as well as their function in natural processes, rather than for their use by or relationship to people. According to ecocentrism, not just people or other living things have intrinsic value; all elements of an ecosystem have as well

Origins of Ecocentrism

The foundational ideas of ecocentrism have been around for a very long time. Numerous indigenous societies adhered to an ecocentric perspective of their surroundings. However, in the early 1940s, ecocentrism began to take hold in the academic Western world. 

The foundation of contemporary ecocentrism is thought to be Aldo Leopold's 1937 collection of essays A Sand County Almanac, in which he discusses a "land ethic" that expands the idea of "community" to embrace both land and live species. 

We mistreat land because we see it as a resource that belongs to us. We may start treating the land with love and respect when we consider it to be a community to which we belong. An Almanac of Sand County by Aldo Leopold 1937 "Deep ecology" is a word that philosopher Arne Naess first used in 1973 to refer to a set of ideas that are akin to ecocentrism. He contends that nature should be respected for its own sake rather than for what it can do for humanity.

Exactly why is ecocentrism essential?

Ecocentrism is crucial for a number of reasons. From an ethical perspective, ecocentrism promotes people to care about things other than themselves and increases the moral population. When you embrace an ecocentric philosophical perspective, you are not just thinking about people or how other things can meet their needs. You respect and care for all forms of life and ecological components.

Conservation is something that ecocentrists cherish as well, and some contend that this ideology is essential to achieving sustainable living (Cryer et al. 2017). According to this theory, the ecosystem must be included in the broadest sense of moral considerations because all life is supported by geological, nonliving processes. According to an ecocentric perspective, every living thing has a role to play in maintaining and expanding the planet's ecosystems.

What Is a Good Ecocentrism Example?

The opposition to environmentally harmful mining is a prime example of ecocentrism. Opencast mining is used in the process of "strip mining" to obtain coal or ore. Although this practice is bad for the ecosystem, it may give the human population access to additional natural resources. According to an ecocentric viewpoint, this procedure is immoral since it degrades the ecosystem.

This argument explains why environmentalist policies frequently have an ecocentric focus. All ecosystems must be preserved while also providing for the requirements of the human race.

Anthropocentrism

An ethical perspective of the environment known as anthropocentrism places man at the center of the cosmos. If an environmental policy or activity has a positive effect on human interests, it will be deemed to be good. According to the anthropocentric viewpoint, the human being is at the center of everything. Anthropocentrism, or the assessment of reality from the solely human perspective, explains man's propensity to see himself as the most significant and central force in the cosmos.

Anthropocentrism is an environmental ethics concept that places human beings at the center of the universe. Humans believe themselves to be the most unique species. If observed, all living organisms rely on their surroundings, particularly the natural world, which can sustain daily life. However, humans who simply view nature as a means of satisfying their needs from an anthropocentric perspective are free to take advantage of it.

where the environment is constantly in contact with human existence and that of all other living things in order to suit their requirements. This serves as justification for why humans exploit nature as they ought to due of an innate need to satisfy their wants, even when along the route there is not insignificant environmental harm caused by humans' own acts. 

Therefore, it is quite regrettable that people, with all of their greed, have turned into the primary agents of environmental degradation, which is a crucial aspect of their life.

One of the reasons why the development viewpoint (paradigm), which refers to the ethics of anthropocentrism and is based on the claim made by Aristotle in his book The Politics that plants are produced for the benefit of animals, is incorrect is the ongoing environmental devastation. 

The incorrect viewpoint that holds that nature and all of its components are only a method of satiating the desires and requirements of human life, making humans engage in acts of exploitation without making any attempts at betterment.

Anthropocentrism is the study of humans as it relates to anthropology studies. An Introduction to Anthropology by Simon Coleman and Helen Watson, published in 1992, defines anthropology as the study of people and society, both alive and dead, as well as their development and genetic makeup. 

According to Alfred Louis Kroeber, anthropology is the most humanist field of study while the humanities are the most scientific fields of inquiry. Anthropology embraces the creative component while utilizing scientific research techniques and analytical ideas.

There are seven levels of categorization for the viewpoints of society and organizations based on these two approaches. frist, in the beginning, is a simple viewpoint that only seeks and pursues profit. Second, it demonstrates how businesses are starting to recognize their social duty. 

Third, those who support the social compact, who believe that the company has carried out these social responsibility activities. Fourth, social ecologists, who hold the belief that a company must be able to address the issues it creates.

 Fifth, socialists hold that all property is public property and that there is no such thing as private property. Sixth, radical feminists are philosophies that oppose mastery-based patriarchal or masculine ideologies. Fundamentally, when there is a problem, what is required is mutual cooperation, without even making gender distinctions. Seventh, the deep ecologists hold that humans have no business interfering with nature's ability to survive and thrive.

Consequential theory and non consequential theory are the two categories into which conventional philosophy or conventional ethics can be split. According to the consequential ethic, the value of something is determined by the outcomes and objectives attained. 

While the non consequential theory is a moral philosophy that determines what is good or wrong based on how a procedure is carried out. Researchers can draw the conclusion that firms carry out social duty to the environment based on several purposes after applying the philosophy. An organization's ongoing evolution does not include any noticeable changes.

Thus, it is anticipated that using this philosophical perspective will result in improvements that will assist the environment.

Indonesian environmental circumstances

Manik claims in the 2016 book Environmental Management that environmental issues affect industrialized nations like Indonesia as well, in addition to developing ones. Because environmental challenges encompass more than just significant factors that may negatively affect some individuals, they constitute an engaging topic for discussion.

 But for all individuals on Earth, if they are not treated well, in addition to their influence, environmental issues are also being discussed more and more because most of these issues are brought on by human activities that don't consider the environment.

Environmental issues are widespread in Indonesia and have not yet been fixed. Extreme weather has a huge impact on this environmental issue since it causes erosion and overflowing rivers, among other things. Indonesia's environmental circumstances are in a terrible state. Corporations continue to exploit and devastate forests from Kalimantan to Papua, particularly through deforestation for the transfer of land to extractive industries.

Natural resources are being exploited by the extractive industries, which not only threaten the livelihoods of tens of millions of indigenous peoples but also have an adverse effect on the declining forests that serve as carbon dioxide absorbers.

According to statistics gathered from WALHI's research, investment permits for the extractive industry cover 159 million hectares of land. 82.91% of land has been lawfully taken over by businesses, compared to 29.75% of sea. The highest annual forest loss in Southeast Asia, according to IPBES 2018 statistics, occurs in Indonesia, where 680,000 hectares of forest are lost each year. 

Of the 105 rivers that exist today, data on river damage gathered by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry showed that 101 of them were moderately to severely polluted. In addition, WALHI's search from 2013 to 2019 came up some very astounding data, showing that only 25 tycoons actually held all of Indonesia's oil palm land. 12.3 million hectares of forest are under the ownership of this oil palm corporation. 

5.8 million hectares of the total forest land that has been authorized and granted the authorization are now oil palm plantations.

In contrast, 50--70 million indigenous people reside in Indonesia and depend entirely on the forest for their survival. Conflicts in the regions will rise as a result of the destruction and corporate ownership of forests, which will further accelerate global warming. the government like rolling out the red carpet for capitalism, the government should show more respect for the rights of indigenous peoples and guard against the criminalization of companies.

No less concerning is the Auriga Nusantara report. Papua has seen deforestation that has affected an area of 663.443 hectares over the course of Jokowi's government, or at least the last 20 years. of which 71% occurred between 2011 and 2019. The beginning of 339,247 hectare oil palm plantations is where the majority of deforestation took place.

However, it appears that just 194 thousand hectares have been planted with oil palm, with the remaining portions being destroyed, according to the search's findings.

It turns out that there are also requirements for numerous issues as a result of turning woods into extractive industrial regions, whether it be plantations, property, agriculture, forestry, mining, infrastructure, or marine. According to the Consortium for Agrarian Renewal's (KPA) report, there were 410 agrarian disputes in 2018, involving 87,568 households across a conflict area of 807.177 hectares.

Figure 2.1. Agrarian Conflicts in Indonesia, 2010-2018

It is not unexpected when in 2020, BNPB recorded 2,925 natural catastrophe events in Indonesia, including floods, tornadoes, landslides, forest and land fires, droughts, and heat waves. This is because of the significant forest degradation that has taken place. As can be observed by the numerous ecological disasters that have struck Indonesia, including floods, landslides, and other events in different locations, the environmental problem is getting worse.

According to data from the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB), According to the BNPB, there were 337 flood-related incidents, 186 tornadoes, and 144 landslides throughout 2021. Then came 70 instances of forest and land fires, 13 earthquakes, 12 tidal wave and abrasion events, and 1 drought.

Sumber: BNPB Indonesia's Twitter

Figure 2,2. Distribution of Natural Disasters in Indonesia for The Period 1 January - 9 March 2021.                                 

The terrible practices of a few number of firms that control millions of hectares of land were shown to exacerbate the severity of catastrophes in Indonesia. This ecocide practice of environmental degradation ignores spatial and environmental planning. In the two years between 2017 and 2018, there was an increase in the number of catastrophe victims from the previous figure of 3.49 million people to 9.88 million people, which is nearly a threefold increase in terms of casualties.

Why Do We Need Environmental Ethics?

Environmental ethics are very required to stop unchecked environmental devastation. Environmental ethics primarily examines how people ought to act or conduct themselves toward the environment. both the values and moral principles that guide human behavior in interactions with nature and the norms or laws that govern human behavior in those interactions. 

The idea presented above aims to explain why non-human animals are given consideration in this ethics. The natural world or environment is admitted into the moral community. The perspective on human moral behavior is broadened in this part.

Environmental ethics is a critique of the ethical standards that humans who are confined to human social communities have up until now chosen. Ethics The biotic community or ecological community must be included in the application of ethics and morals due to the environment. Ethics is sometimes thought of as a critical analysis of what people ought to do when faced with moral decisions regarding environmental challenges.

This information ought to serve as a wake-up call for the government to reevaluate its current course. Because recently, by pawning the fate of millions of marginalized people, the laws passed by the government and the House of Representatives actually benefited a small number of businesspeople and extractive corporations.

Conclusion

The environmental catastrophe that humanity faces on a worldwide scale at the start of the twenty-first century has sparked a renewed awareness of how to handle nature and the environment as habitats and sources of life. According to an anthropocentric viewpoint, human activities that disregard environmental sustainability are actually what cause environmental problems, whether they do so knowingly or unknowingly. 

When this issue is brought on by extensive operations like mining and industrial pollution, it will become even more visible. Of course, such actions that harm the environment go counter to the ecocentric viewpoint that egoism should be eliminated by placing the interests of nature above human or even class interests.

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