These studies collectively highlight the necessity of comprehensive HR capacity-building programs and infrastructural upgrades to sustain Jakarta's urban growth and global competitiveness.
Identification Of Gaps In Education, Training, And Policy Implementation
Gaps in education, training, and policy implementation continue to hinder the effectiveness of human resource development strategies globally. Angrist and Dercon (2024) identify "policy-practice gaps," where well-intended educational policies fail due to ineffective service delivery and limited stakeholder engagement (Angrist & Dercon, 2024). Similarly, Olayo (2022) highlights discrepancies in Kenya's technical and vocational education and training (TVET) system, emphasizing the need for better alignment between policy design and on-ground implementation (Olayo, 2022).
Bokayev et al. (2021) discuss the challenges faced during the implementation of distance learning policies in Kazakhstan, citing inadequate training for educators and technological infrastructure gaps as major hurdles (Bokayev et al., 2021). Abdullahi and Othman (2020) further analyze gaps in policy implementation, suggesting that disconnects between intent and execution often stem from a lack of monitoring frameworks and stakeholder collaboration (Abdullahi & Othman, 2020).
These studies collectively underscore the importance of robust monitoring, enhanced training frameworks, and collaborative policymaking to address existing gaps effectively.
2.4 RELEVANT THEORIES AND FRAMEWORKS
Human Capital Theory
Human Capital Theory (HCT) has long been a foundational framework for understanding the relationship between education, skill development, and economic productivity. Initially developed to conceptualize the economic value of education and training, the theory posits that investments in human capital---such as education and skill acquisition---lead to increased productivity and income. However, recent studies have expanded and critiqued its scope, emphasizing both its contributions and limitations in contemporary contexts.
Marginson (2019) critiques HCT's narrow focus, arguing that its closed-system approach fails to account for the complexities of modern economies, particularly issues like inequality and the dynamic interplay of socio-economic factors. He emphasizes the need for a more integrative approach that incorporates social, cultural, and institutional dynamics (Marginson, 2019). Similarly, Fix (2018) identifies gaps in HCT's applicability to income distribution, highlighting how the theory often oversimplifies the determinants of economic outcomes, particularly in diverse labor markets (Fix, 2018).
Wuttaphan (2017) examines the implications of HCT for Human Resource Development (HRD), emphasizing its relevance in workforce training and economic policy. He suggests that while HCT provides a useful framework for assessing returns on educational investment, it must evolve to consider the dynamic demands of globalized labor markets and technological innovation (Wuttaphan, 2017). Tan (2014) offers a holistic critique of HCT, proposing that it must incorporate ethical and social considerations to ensure that human capital investments benefit not only economic growth but also societal well-being (Tan, 2014).
In addition to critiques, recent applications of HCT underscore its relevance. Nafukho et al. (2004) connect HCT to HRD practices, illustrating how organizations can leverage training and development to enhance employee productivity and organizational competitiveness (Nafukho et al., 2004). Fleischhauer (2007) expands on this by highlighting the microeconomic underpinnings of HCT, focusing on individual decision-making regarding educational investments and their long-term economic impacts (Fleischhauer, 2007).
