Concepts, Principles and Theories of Learning

By Lamis Ahmad Esmat - Student at Muhammadiyah Malang University.

Background

Learning theory provides the basic principles for understanding the mechanisms and ways in which people learn, based on philosophical principles or field and laboratory experiences. When comparing these theories, it is clear that each may suit a particular didactic situation, or a particular type of learner, or the available learning environment. The goal is ultimately to try to integrate all or some of these theories during lesson planning and during class activities to serve student learning. The 21st century educational paradigm has undergone a shift marked by differences in learning orientation (Priyanti, 2013). The paradigm shift from behaviorism to constructivism with a constructivist approach is quickly popular and is considered a context of paradigmatic transformation or innovation (Erdal, et al., 2021). Therefore, it is necessary to identify constructivist theory, which is said about constructivism theory: - Constructivism learning models are able make students active in constructing knowledge in learning activities (Suparno, 1997). Constructivism philosophy, which focuses on an inquiry approach, teachers are expected to prepare, deliver and adapt assessment tools that use methods and techniques that are guided by the theoretical assumptions of constructivism (Chan, 2020). Meanwhile, constructivist epistemology assumes that students build their own knowledge based on interactions with their environment (Sugrah, 2019).

As for cognitive theory, there must be supporters of this theory, the knowledge dimension (cognitive) in education is a source of stimulus that can motivate oneself to be able to have behavioral readiness/attitude on the affective dimension so that it can then encourage positive environmental psychomotor dimensions in accordance with 602 Biology , Science, Environment, and Learning _ expected learning outcomes (Mead, 1972; Ajzen, 2001; Karyanto, 2011). Cognitive learning is a change in how to process information as a result of experience or practice (Syarifuddin, 2011). From the above understanding, it can be understood that cognition is a term used by psychologists to describe all mental activities related to perception, thought, memory, and processing of information that allows a person to acquire knowledge (Dasmita, 2011).   According to Puspo Nugroho (2015), the definition of "Cognitive" comes from the word "Cognition" which has similarities with "knowing" which means to know. In a broad sense, cognition is the acquisition, arrangement, and use of knowledge. A person's behavior according to cognitive psychology theory, is not solely influenced by "reward" and "reinforcement".

David Asby and Flora Roebuck say Humanistic Theory created the largest field of study ever in 42 states and 7 countries. From the 1970s to the 1980s, funded by the National Institute for the Study of Mental Health in 12 year olds focused on factors that motivate creativity and achievement as well as improve students' thinking and interaction and factors that reduce violence among students and ultimately satisfaction with the educational process of teachers and students, the results of this study confirm Carl Roger's theory, which states that teachers are emotional and that value and value students and they are also an example of honesty in the class. However, the Behavioristic School Behavioristic Theory contributes to building a new learning concept that focuses on behavioristic learners and the conditions under which learning takes place, as a link in the chain of educational concepts changing in one of the stages of its development from stimulation to reinforced behaviorism.

DISCUSSION

- Definition and Explanation of Cognitive Theory 

The term Cognitive comes from the word cognition, which means knowing or knowing, which in a broad sense means acquiring, structuring, and using knowledge (Setiono, 2019). 

Cognitive learning theory concepts What is the basis on which cognitive learning theory is based:

Cognitive learning theory and its offshoots are a kind of opposite direction to behavioral learning theory, because cognitive theory relies on being attuned to the questions of rational philosophers and the ideas and theories it generates, and agreeing on its rules in terms of theory. -the learning theory of constructivist beliefs, because it gives importance to what works within them. The human mind consists of thinking, remembering, meditating, and explaining phenomena. This theory aspires to construct what is based on planning, thinking, forecasting and decision making; That is, it does not follow a behaviorist approach, because a person responds to the stimuli around him to take action, but depends more on everything that happens within the individual from cognitive mechanisms that can be developed through education. The concept of cognitive learning theory is based on the collection, organization, and use of cognitive information and scientific experience that a person can acquire through education, and therefore that information and experience becomes part of the stock of knowledge on which he or she relies in solving problems and dealing with them. with the information, objects and people around him, and thus he benefits to a certain degree. The first is the memory's ability to store information through a special strategy with which the memory works, and use it appropriately; It takes in as much information or expertise as it wants when it needs it. Moh. Sholeh (2014) explains that a person's behavior is based on cognition, meaning the act of knowing and thinking about the situation in which the behavior occurs. In a learning situation, a person is directly involved in the situation and gains "insight" for problem solving.

- Cognitive Learning Theory Concepts:

1. The concept of metacognition: The term metacognition arose with the awareness of the importance of ideas generated by the mind, and thus the priority of thought processes in learning systems, and cognitive learning theory is based on this basis, and attention from this aspect allows individuals to do all its function The learning process allows him to rely on basic points: perception and understanding. 

2. The concept of being affected in cognitive thinking: This is a concept that studies how cognitive thinking is affected by internal and external factors around it. 

- The most prominent theorists of cognitive learning theory: 

1. Jean Piaget The most important contributor to the formation of cognitive learning theory was the Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget, when he began his interest in theorizing this science by observing children's movements in specific contexts, and using those movements to understand what children are. thinking, then he became a pioneer in his study of the idea of gradual development, and the affiliation of this development with the behavior that the child exhibits during different stages of his development, Piaget therefore launched an understanding of the mechanisms of thinking that operate by the human mind and what affects and is affected by these mechanisms , and the consequent ability to learn, receive and acquire various skills and experiences.

2.John Dewey John Dewey presented a different qualitative aspect of experience in the field of cognitive debate, emphasizing the vital function of cognition, and the impact of cognitive experience on its formation, and presenting an unprecedented philosophical starting point for cognitive thinking, namely that the relationship between thinking and speaking begins with situations. faced by individuals. From individual perceptions of things, and from here levels of abstraction begin to become apparent in Dewey's view of cognitive constructs, which represent

- Pros of cognitive learning theory: 

1. Improving the learning process Cognitive learning theory provides the learner with the ability to acquire information and establish mechanisms through which he or she can handle and acquire knowledge, thus providing him with the basic tools to learn any science, and enabling him to build cumulative knowledge, in addition to prior knowledge on an ongoing basis, which provides Flexibility and continuous development of the individual in terms of his cognitive awareness and educational experience. 

2. Self-affirmation and self-confidence development The learner is often able to discuss, dialogue and do new work and innovate better when he has good knowledge and deep understanding in the field in which he is studying or working, and this makes cognitive theory a vehicle for the learner's belief in himself and his ability to express himself. 

3. Improve the understanding process There is no doubt that cognitive theory has paid great attention to human mental processes, and it is this understanding process that leads to the development of prior information and the acquisition of good information, skills and experiences, which enable the learner to develop the best and most quality educational material he receives. 

4. Improve problem solving skills Since the development of mental skills is one of the pillars of cognitive learning theory, these skills are the first thing that students can rely on in solving the problems they face, and this makes them more prepared and intellectual. ready to face hard times. 

5. Helping individuals learn quickly The application of cognitive learning theory through experiential learning provides many opportunities to speed up the process of assimilation, understanding and acceptance, which makes the learner more responsive and able to collect, analyze and interpret information, through the use of the same successful methods that have previously been tried by individual minds, and also store new information in the way previous memories are held. 

6. Allows the learner to form concepts The most important element of cognitive learning theory is to enable the learner to visualize, especially those concepts that have specific images in mind, and which require the use of imagination with perception, understanding, analysis and interpretation.

- Definition and Explanation of Constructivist Theory - Constructivist learning theory:- 

Contrary to what happened in the past, modern theories say that actual learning will not be based on what the learner has heard, even if he or she memorizes it and repeats it in front of the teacher. information and not necessarily what the teacher wants, so the teacher's preoccupation with sending information to students, confirming and repeating it will not be useful in building the information he wants in the minds of students. Teachers can maximize a significant impact on learning when students' formative data on assessment activities go well (Wilson, 2017). Constructivism views learning as a process, the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based on knowledge possessed in the past or existed at that time and can be said to involve the construction of one's knowledge from one's own experience by oneself (Nur Aziza, 2018). According to constructivist theory students must interact with meaningful activities because of previous experiences (Adam et al., 2021).

- Historical roots of constructivist theory:

Constructivism as an epistemology is founded on the premise that people build knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience so that knowledge cannot simply be transmitted from one person to another, new knowledge is built on the foundation of prior knowledge and personal life experiences as a result of targeted activities in situations certain (Tafrova-Grigorova et al., 2012). Constructivism is a learning theory that argues that students actively construct knowledge and make meaning, based on their experiences, individually or socially (Narayan, 2013). Constructivist theory has gained great popularity in recent years, although the ideas are not modern, as the trend towards constructivism can be observed through the works of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (from 320-470 BC), all of whom speak of "the formation of knowledge". As for Saint Augustin (mid 300 AD), he said: "We must rely on sensory experience when one seeks truth", and although the main philosophy of Constructivism is attributed to Jean Piaget (1986 - 1980), however, Pestalozzi (1746-1827) came with results the same over a century ago, when he emphasized the need for educational methods depending on the natural development of children and on their feelings and feelings, and their lives in their homes and families. environment. Thus, we can say that constructivism is a long-standing theory of knowledge that extends over centuries, and it is not strange to see this repeated by several philosophers and theorists throughout history, while it remains the only modern theorist trying to combined several of these ideas into an integrated and comprehensive theory - which later formed the foundation of modern developmental psychology - Jean Piaget, who brought together philosophy and psychology to turn people's attention to the interests of the child's thinking and intelligence and paved the way for new outlooks and organizations in the field of education and psychology.

- Concept of constructivist theory

 The active role that the learner takes in constructivist learning contrasts sharply with the learning role which is the passive transmission of information from one individual to another. Constructivism is a theory that presupposes that knowledge must be constructed by someone, not just transmitted to that person. Piaget's cognitive views on constructivism and object learning models in theory put forward characteristics that essentially support limitless learning contexts (Voon et al., 2020). Constructivism theory states that learning is non-linear, recursive, continuous, complex and relational (Kumari, V., 2014). Constructivists believe that learning is influenced by the context in which an idea is taught (Bada&Steve O., 2016). Constructivist learning, student-centered and experiential approach as much as possible (Abdulwahed, 2015). At the heart of constructivism is the view that we learn most naturally through active learning (Dewy, 2009). The word constructivism comes from construction or structure, which comes from the Latin word sturere which means the way a building is erected and can be defined as "a vision in the theory of learning and child development, that children are active in building themselves. patterns of thinking as a result of the interaction of innate abilities with experience. Constructivism, in its simplest form and its clearest implications, states that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner and not passively received by the environment. 

- The foundations and principles of learning in constructivist theory   

The individual constructs knowledge in his mind and is not transferred to it in full. Individuals interpret what they receive and construct meaning based on the information they have. The society in which individuals live has a major impact on building knowledge. Learning is inseparable from the development of the relationship between subject and object. Inference is a condition for constructing concepts: concepts are built only on the basis of inferential conclusions which derive their material from verb schemas.

- Mistakes are a condition of learning

because mistakes are opportunities and situations, by overcoming them, the knowledge that we think is true is built. Understanding is a necessary condition for learning. Learning is associated with experience, not indoctrination. Learn to go beyond and deny distractions. The social constructivists call for authentic real-world problem solving and involve students in the process of working out valid action plans and timeframes for projects (Mellis et al., 2013). The Constructivist Learning Step according to Koohang consists of nine steps, namely 1) Identifying objectives, 2) preparing learning product content, 3) identifying students' prior knowledge. 4) identification of student misconceptions, 5) planning and learning strategies embodied in teaching materials, 6) implementation of the learning program in the classroom stage consists of three steps namely orientation and presentation of learning experiences, exploring student ideas, restructuring ideas, 7) evaluation, 8) clarification and student analysis, and 9) revision of misconception strategies (Achzab et al., 2018). Constructivism is a dynamic process in which local changes in knowledge construction can lead to changes in overall understanding and in teaching and learning, the main task of the teacher in the constructivist approach is to guide students to construct new information through exploration activities (Ahmad et al., 2015). The constructivist approach is an excellent medium used in teaching to improve students' higher-order thinking skills. Learning is more meaningful if students construct their own knowledge and understanding. Reflections written in student journals in the constructivist class include 1) the topic of solutions is discussed thoroughly, 2) the strategies used, and 3) finding answers from the topics discussed. This proves that students' skills in understanding, analysis, and application in the experimental group are actually improved by using a constructivist approach in teaching chemistry concepts and principles (Solomo M., 2020).

- Definition and Explanation of Behavioristic 

Theory Behavioristic schools contribute to building a new learning concept that focuses on behavioristic learners and the conditions under which learning takes place, as a chain of educational concepts changing in one of the stages of its development from stimulation to reinforced behaviorism. He cannot achieve this reinforcement alone, and educational technology greatly assists him in creating this reinforcement and developing it educationally.

- Nature of Behavioristic theory and its concepts (procedural)

1. Behavioristic Boerhaus Friedrich Skinner defines it as a series of responses resulting from stimuli in the immediate external environment. It is supported and strengthened so that its future appearance is strengthened, or it does not receive support and is less likely to occur in the future. 

2. Stimulus and Response Behavioristic change is the result of and response to external stimulus. 

3. Reinforcement and Punishment: Through Edward Lee Thorndike's experience, it appears that receiving reinforcement and reward generally supports and stabilizes Behavioristic behavior, while punishment reduces response, and thus from reinforcement and fixation of behavior. 

4. Learning: This is a process of semi-permanent change in behavioristic individuals. 

- The principles of behavioristic theory (procedural):

 Among the learner's experience and changes in his responses: 

1. Learning is linked to outcomes. 

2. Learning is related to the procedural Behavioristic that we want to build. 

3. Learning is built with support and performance reinforcement that is close to Behavioristic.

- Behavioristic theory and its development   

Boerhaus Friedrich Skinner's ideas and his thesis brought about several changes in educational and pedagogical thinking in general. Skinner considers that the child in classical pedagogy is learning to avoid punishment, in the absence of any form of support. But it should be noted that behaviorism as a school of psychology emerged in 1913 AD in America by "Watson", who moved from animal psychology to the field of child psychology; This is by no means that he founded this school from a vacuum or by individual effort, on the contrary, other scholars preceded him in that, as he himself announced in AD 1912 that the behaviorists concluded "that they could not yet be persuaded to work on ---the intangible and the mysterious, and they have decided one way or the other; either they leave psychology or they turn it into natural science." And so Watson acknowledged with the efforts of his predecessors, and announced their firm decision, which was nothing more than one of two options; As for the introduction of psychology in the natural sciences, and thus they insisted on making the subject of this science measurable, so they focused on " Behavioristic" as a subject of science rather than the intangible "soul" and "soul", and chose the scientific method studying Behavioristic.

- Apply behavioristic theory in Education

Gagasan Skinner tentang pembelajaran terprogram adalah menempatkan siswa kelas di depan kesempatan yang sama dan memindahkan mereka dari topik yang diketahui ke topik yang tidak diketahui. Ia menemukan bahwa sarana untuk mencapai tujuan ini adalah sistem pendidikan; Ini memberi siswa apa yang disediakan kotak untuk tikus atau merpati dengan memberinya program yang berisi pelajaran lama dan baru. Dalam situasi ini, siswa hanya perlu menekan tombol tertentu agar materi pendidikan (latihan, kalimat, pertanyaan ...) muncul di layar, Kemudian minta dia untuk memecahkan atau menjawabnya. Dan untuk mengetahui apakah hasil pekerjaannya benar atau salah, ia harus menekan tombol yang ditunjuk untuk itu. Kesepakatan jawaban yang muncul di layar sistem pendidikan dan jawaban siswa dianggap penguatan. Sedangkan ketidaksepakatan di antara mereka adalah kesempatan bagi siswa untuk mengenali kesalahannya dan menghindarinya pada upaya kedua.

- Differences between Cognitive and Behavioristic theories:

1. Both the Behavioristic school and the Cognitive school belong to psychology and are considered as its offshoots, and both deal with the behavioristic study of human beings, and each tries to reach the hidden dimensions that compose and control that behaviorism, and discover the reasons that motivate individuals to do something certain behavioristic that makes the two streams separate from one another.

2. The Behavioristic school differs in its view of the underlying behavioristic causes of cognitive theory. Behaviorism deals with individuals and their actions based on the fact that this behavioristic is the result of external influences that cause certain actions or words to be done, and since then behavioristic psychologists believe in the importance of external influences and their impacts, Pavlov added. There are two ways to build adaptive behaviorism, the first is the classical adaptation, which is based on repetitive practice, and the second is the effective adaptation, which is based on rewards and punishments. 

3. Meanwhile, cognitive psychology believes that Behavioristic causes are primarily the mental processes that the mind performs in interpreting, analyzing, solving problems and understanding different situations. Cognitive is the idea that concepts and perceptions are what distinguish human beings from other creatures. based on certain mental processes that follow logical thinking, memory processors, and ideas that stimulate him positively or negatively.

- Difference between Constructivist theory and Behavioristic theory

1. The difference is important, because traditional theory considers learning as the transfer of information to students only, while constructivist theory assumes that learning at this point has not started, but begins after. learner, who creates personal meaning resulting from knowledge. Behavioral theory is concerned with the visible behavior of the learner, while constructivist theory is concerned with the learner's internal cognitive processes. 

2. The role of the teacher in behaviorism is to create a learning environment to encourage students to learn the desired behavior, whereas in constructivism, the learning environment is created to allow students to construct their own knowledge. 

3. Evaluation procedures differ from theory to theory. While some teaching theories focus on standardized reference tests, others focus on oral reference tests, or use experiments or open-ended questions.

- Definition and Explanation of Humanistic Theory

Humanistic education or (individual learning) is education that depends on the achievements of humanistic psychology, and Abraham Maslow and Carl Roger are the best known in this field. The keys to an effective teacher are empathy, concern for students and honesty. He has also edited books on human education in Personal String Studies which also includes his books The Freedom to Learn Learn to Feel and Feel to Learn Human Education for All Humanity by Harold C. Leon J. R, in the 1970s, "humanistic education" became less common after conservative religious groups attacked the writings of Harold Lyons, calling him out and approaching him with secular studies and accusing his writing of being anti-Christian. This curriculum is to study humans in terms of intelligence, sense of life, social abilities, intelligence technical and practical skills, all of which are important pillars of the process of human growth and development. The goal of all this is to increase self-esteem in children. Improve their ability to set appropriate goals and strive for them, and their development to achieve autonomy full.

- History of  The Theory

Human education goes back to the ancient philosophers of the Renaissance, who appreciated the importance of studying the humanities; Grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy, which were originally built on ancient educational models, depended on the evolution of their humanistic impulse towards Scottish education when the Education Act 1496 was enacted.  

- Field Studies on Education

David Asby and Flora Roebuck created the largest field of study ever in 42 states and 7 countries From the 1970s through the 1980s, funded by the National Institute for the Study of Mental Health in 12 year olds focusing on motivating factors creativity and achievement as well as improve thinking and interaction When students and factors that reduce violence among students and ultimately satisfaction with the educational process of teachers and students, the results of this study confirm Carl Roger's theory, which states that teachers are emotional and who value and value students and they are also examples of honesty in the classroom.  

In 2010 Professors Jeffrey Cornelius White and Adam Herbo made a comprehensive analysis of personal education, including their analysis of the best studies of human education since 1984, Tosh, Leon and Rogers published a book entitled "Being a Successful Educator - Personally Focused Philosophy and Psychology Education." In 2013, another book "The Conversations of Carl Roger and Harold Lyon" includes the most recent unpublished writings of Roger's work, and documents the research results of four independent studies specializing in this field, containing the largest amount of information gathered so far in this field.  

- Educational Environment 

The school environment that adheres to humane educational methods and practices is different from the environment surrounding traditional schools; The reason for this is that there is education inside and outside the school building, where students spend most of their educational time. The internal environment of the school contains many things such as desks, ordinary chairs and doll-bag chairs, which are used for relaxing while reading, as well as kitchen bookshelves. and a special place for students to self-isolate and wall publications. It is artistic and colorful, and it is possible to have a tree house, outdoor kitchen, sandbox, play tools, natural elements, sports ground to practice many activities, etc. Activities and sports are chosen by the student himself according to his inclinations and free will.

Conclusion  

One of the most important learning theories is cognitive theory, constructivist, behavioristic, humanistic, therefore, it is necessary to know the definition of each theory and its pioneers and what the contents of the theory are. Based on what we explained in our previous articles, it is known that each theory has advantages and disadvantages, and therefore it is possible to follow any theory about them for education, and there is no preference for one over the other. 

Suggestion  

There is overlap between references between theoretical objectives, but the majority can be agreed upon unanimously.

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