Philosophical Education According to Epictetus
[caption id="" align="alignright" width="266" caption="Epictetus (c. 55-135 AD)"][/caption]
Philosophy in today's Western world has been predominantly perceived as part of the academe. Students enrol at a higher education institution, take a philosophy course, attend classes and undergo exams. It seems that philosophy is all about an academic discipline, a subject taught in universities.
Little do they know that a number of schools of thought recorded in history saw philosophy as a way of life, in lieu of a mere theory. This notion can be found not only in the Eastern world—in which philosophy pivots around a matter of leading an ethically good life—but also in the Western counterpart. And to some extent Stoicism belonged to this group. As a school of philosophy emerging after Plato and Aristotle, popularly known as Hellenistic philosophy, Stoicism put a heavy emphasis on the importance of self-control as a means of living in accordance with Nature.
This article then aims at explaining the general system of philosophy as perceived by Epictetus, a philosopher of the late Stoa. A brief biography of Epictetus will precede further explanations. Afterwards, the system of philosophical education taken from his teachings, as recorded by his student Flavius Arrianus, will follow. Finally, I will give some general remarks.
It should be noted that no attempt has been made to peruse texts written by or attributed to Epictetus’ contemporaries of the late Stoa, such as Musonius Rufus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, even though they might have inspired or have been inspired by Epictetus. Neither did I zero in on detailed Stoic doctrines requiring further studies, such as logic, physics and ethics.
As for the primary resources, I have utilised two versions of translation of the Diatribai and the Enchiridion: in English and French. The English translation of the former was made by George Long (1890) under the title The Discourses, while that of the latter was made by Nicholas White (1983) under the title The Handbook. The French equivalent of the Discourses came from V. Courdaveux (Entretiens, 1862) and that of the Handbook came from Jean-François Thurot (Manuel, 1899).
Life of Epictetus[1]
Due to limited resources, one can draw only a basic sketch of Epictetus’ life. The resources comprise references in the ancient texts and a number of allusions that Epictetus makes to his own life in the Discourses.
Epictetus was born in about 55 AD in Hierapolis, a Greek town in Asia Minor (now Pamukkale, in south-western Turkey). Prior to being a prominent philosopher, he used to be a slave of a very wealthy freedman named Epaphroditus, who was himself an administrative secretary in the court of Emperor Nero.
It is unknown when Epictetus went to Rome; however, researchers estimated that it must have been either (1) when Epaphroditus fled the capital before the year 68; or (2) after Domitian acceded to the throne in 81, who then allowed Epaphroditus to return and possibly to resume his position.
Epictetus then studied for a period of time under Musonius Rufus, who was a Roman senator and adherent of Stoicism. When finally obtaining freedom, he started lecturing on his own account.
Unfortunately, the edict of Emperor Domitian in 89, which forbid all philosophers from the Italian peninsula, forced him to leave Rome. At Nicopolis, which at that time was an important cultural centre in Epirus, on the Adriatic coast of northwest Greece, he managed to establish his own school. During this period he attracted quite a few upper-class Romans, one of whom was Flavius Arrianus (c.86–160), who would compose the Discourses and the Handbook.
Not only did his school gain a good reputation, Epictetus grew more and more renowned. He was recognised by Herodes Atticus (c.101–177), a teacher of Marcus Aurelius, as ‘the greatest of Stoics’—this notion was written by Aulus Gellius (c.125–c.165) in Attic Nights 1.2.6. Separately, Origen (Contra Celsum 6.2) noted that Epictetus had been more well-known in his day than had his predecessor Plato in his. Origen also quoted (Contra Celsum 7.53) a story told by author Celsus—possibly a contemporary of Epictetus in his youth—that when still a slave, Epictetus was tortured by his master who twisted his leg. Enduring the pain with complete composure, Epictetus warned Epaphroditus that his leg would break, and when it did break, he said, ‘There, did I not tell you that it would break?’
His popularity notwithstanding, Epictetus never married and had no children, but for reasons of benevolence he late in life adopted a child whose parents could not provide for its maintenance. He spent his lifetime teaching at the town until his demise in around 135.
Preliminary step: What philosophy is concerned about
Philosophy according to Epictetus is not simply a matter of acquiring knowledge on a particular theory. To him, philosophy is the art of living. What does it mean to take philosophy as the art of living? Before going any further, it behoves us to pay heed to the following quotation.
Discourses, book 1, chapter 15
What philosophy promises
Entretiens, livre Ier, chapitre XV
À quoi s’engage la philosophie ?
When a man was consulting him how he should persuade his brother to cease being angry with him, Epictetus replied: Philosophy does not propose to secure for a man any external thing. If it did philosophy would be allowing something which is not within its province. For as the carpenter’s material is wood, and that of the statuary is copper, so the matter of the art of living is each man’s life. “What then is my brother’s?” That again belongs to his own art; but with respect to yours, it is one of the external things, like a piece of land, like health, like reputation. But Philosophy promises none of these. “In every circumstance I will maintain,” she says, “the governing part conformable to nature.” Whose governing part? “His in whom I am,” she says.
“How then shall my brother cease to be angry with me?” Bring him to me and I will tell him. But I have nothing to say to you about his anger.
When the man, who was consulting him, said, “I seek to know this — how, even if my brother is not reconciled to me, shall I maintain myself in a state conformable to nature?” Nothing great, said Epictetus, is produced suddenly, since not even the grape or the fig is. If you say to me now that you want a fig, I will answer to you that it requires time: let it flower first, then put forth fruit, and then ripen. Is, then, the fruit of a fig-tree not perfected suddenly and in one hour, and would you possess the fruit of a man’s mind in so short a time and so easily? Do not expect it, even if I tell you.
Quelqu’un le consultait sur les moyens de persuader à son frère de ne plus vivre mal avec lui. La philosophie ne s’engage pas, lui dit-il, à procurer à l’homme quoi que ce soit d’extérieur ; autrement, elle s’occuperait de choses étrangères à ce qui est sa matière particulière. Le bois est la matière du charpentier ; l’airain est la matière du fondeur de statue ; l’art de vivre, à son tour, a pour matière dans chaque homme la vie de cet homme même. Que dire donc de la vie de ton frère ? Qu’elle relève de son savoir faire à lui ; mais que, par rapport au tien, elle est au nombre des choses extérieures, ainsi que l’est un champ, ainsi que l’est la santé, ainsi que l’est la gloire. Or, sur toutes ces choses la philosophie ne s’engage à rien. « Dans toutes les circonstances, dit-elle, je maintiendrai la partie maîtresse en conformité avec la nature. » — Mais la partie maîtresse de qui ? — De l’être dans lequel je suis.
— Comment donc faire pour que mon frère ne soit plus irrité contre moi ? — Amène-le-moi, et je lui parlerai ; mais je n’ai rien à te dire, à toi, au sujet de sa colère.
Celui qui le consultait ajouta : « Je te demande encore comment je pourrai me conformer à la nature, au cas où mon frère ne se réconcilierait pas avec moi. » Il lui répondit : « Aucune chose considérable ne se produit en un instant, pas plus que le raisin et les figues. Si tu me disais maintenant : je veux une figue, je te dirais : il faut du temps ; laisse l’arbre fleurir, puis les fruits y venir et mûrir. » Et, lorsque le fruit du figuier n’arrive pas à sa perfection d’un seul coup et en un instant, tu voudrais cueillir si facilement et si vite les fruits de la sagesse humaine ! Je te dirai, ne l’espère pas.
One can draw several aspects regarding philosophy based on the above-mentioned passage.
1.Philosophy does not concern itself with any external thing (quoi que ce soit d’extérieur), which includes any situation experienced by himself/herself or by other individuals—in the latter case, the anger of the man’s brother.
2.What philosophy actually concerns is maintaining one’s own governing part (la partie maîtresse, or hēgemonikon) conformable to Nature. It does not deal with the governing part of individuals other than himself or herself.
3.In order to maintain the governing part conformable to Nature, one has to set a certain amount of time (il faut du temps). Similar to plants, which require a certain period of time to grow from the seed until they blossom and bear fruit, this process cannot be completed right away.
Seen as the art of living, philosophy invites us to lead a life in which our governing part, or hēgemonikon, remains in accordance with Nature. But whose governing part can one bring in harmony with Nature? Philosophy insists that it is solely his or her own governing part—that is what philosophy promises: ἐν πάσῃ περιστάσει τηρήσω τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν κατὰ φύσιν ἔχον (en pasē peristasei tērēsō to hēgemonikon kata physin echon). Consequently, philosophy promises nothing about changing the external situation that might affect us and lead us to emotions, mental diseases which are the product of faulty judgements.
That is why the man who asked for Epicetus’ advice was told to ‘be more concerned with his own emotional reaction to his brother’s anger than with his brother’s anger itself’.[2] Annoyed by his brother’s anger, the man can in fact cure his own mental diseases with philosophy; however, he can never treat his brother’s, precisely because only his brother can do so. Here Epictetus’ saying finds its resonance, ‘The matter of the art of living is each man’s life (l’art de vivre a pour matière dans chaque homme la vie de cet homme même).’
The two stages of philosophical education
Once a person accepts the condition that maintaining one’s hēgemonikon conformable to Nature requires time and effort, he or she will be ready to embark on the philosophical journey. John Sellars identifies Epictetus’ two stages of philosophical education: ‘first a study of philosophical discourse, followed by a practical training or apprenticeship conceived as a process of habituation and digestion.’[3] This division is based on a clear distinction, traditionally drawn by the Stoics, ‘between discourse about philosophy and the practice of philosophy itself’.[4] In the Discourses we can find a quotation pertinent to it.
Discourses, book 1, chapter 26
What is the law of life
Entretiens, livre Ier, chapitre XXVI
Que faut-il faire pour apprendre à vivre ?
First, then, philosophers exercise us in theory, which is easier; and then next they lead us to the more difficult things; for in theory, there is nothing which draws us away from following what is taught; but in the matters of life, many are the things which distract us. He is ridiculous, then, who says that he wishes to begin with the matters of real life, for it is not easy to begin with the more difficult things.
Aussi les philosophes commencent-ils par nous exercer à la Logique, ce qui est plus facile ; puis il nous mènent par elle à ce qui est plus difficile. Dans la Logique, en effet, il n’y a jamais rien qui nous tire à soi pour nous empêcher de suivre ce que l’on nous enseigne ; mais dans la pratique, que de choses autour de nous pour nous entraîner dans un autre sens ! Il serait donc ridicule celui qui dirait qu’il veut commencer par la pratique ; car c’est chose mal aisée que de commencer parce qu’il y a de plus difficile.
