The Adaptation of Malay in Kambera Language

2.1 The Function of Regional Malay and of The Vernacular Languages
End of 19th century: Dutch churches & government introduced Malay; for governmental purposes and schooling. The Indonesian government introduced Bahasa Indonesia through government & schools.
Kambera is very much alive within the context of the villages, particularly in the more remote mountainous areas (several hours drive from the main town). One village is basically for one ‘clan’ (kabihu). Persons born in the period before 1960-1965, when there were no primary schools yet (except in the towns), do not know much Malay. Later generations have learned it in primary school. Most children leave school at 12 and remain in the village as farmers. There is generally not much contact with the outside world, and Indonesian media only play a minor role, if at all (TV, radio and newspapers are too expensive). Thus, the Indonesian lexicon of most Kambera speakers remains limited to that of a 12-year old second-language speaker. As Malay is not used much in every day life, speakers tend to become less fluent. Those that can go to a secondary school, normally stay in the main town for 4-5 years, usually in a bilingual community. Those speak Indonesian very well. In general, town people are more fluent than villagers.
Kambera is used at home, on the market, in every day life, in informal situations and in formal and/or traditional ceremonies, such as weddings, funerals and in church (except if the preacher is not a Kambera speaker).
Malay is used in school and in public meetings and government contexts, especially if the government official or the teacher is not a Kambera speaker.
Mixing of Malay and Kambera, with Malay as the dominant language: this does not usually happen, but Kambera lexical items may be inserted, if appropriate.
Mixing Malay and Kambera, with Kambera as the dominant language: Kambera speakers may borrow lexical items from Malay. Some loans are used very often, but they are limited in number (20-30?). In general, borrowing is very limited. An exception may be the church ceremony, because this is a mix of Malay/Kambera in various other ways as well. Psalms and hymns are Kambera words on mostly western melodies (though there are a few Kambera melodies too), Bible reading is from the Kambera New Testament -- but only if the preacher has made effort to train himself to read Kambera, otherwise the Indonesian bible is used. If the reading is from the Old Testament, the Indonesian bible is used as there is no Kambera OT. Many biblical and religious terms are borrowed from Indonesian. The sermon itself is usually in Kambera, if the preacher is a native speaker of Kambera, but with lexical insertion from Indonesian.
In every day life, some individuals borrow a lot of Malay words, and they may also switch regularly between Malay and Kambera, but in general, Kambera speakers do not really do this.

2.2 The Adaptation of Malay In Kambera Language
2.2.1 Native and Non-native Kambera Consonants
a. Native Kambera consonants:

Plain stops p t k
Implosive stops  (b)  (d)
Affricate d (j)
Nasals m n  (ng)
Prenasalised stop mb nd g (ngg)
Prenasalised affricate nd (nj)
Laryngeal fricative h
Liquids r
l
Approximants w j (y)
Prenasalised approximant nj (ny)
b. Non-Native Kambera consonants:

Palatal affricate c
Alveolar fricative s

2.2.2 Phonetic Adaptation
Kambera syllables are open, and therefore a paragogic vowel /u/ is inserted after a root-final consonant. This process is also regularly applied to borrowed words:
kantor > katuru
lambat > lambatu
Hakim > Hakimu
2.2.3 Phonemic Adaptation
The non-inherited phonemes /c, s/ have been borrowed from Malay/Indonesian. They are replaced by h when they are part of words that are frequently used.
tulis surat > tulihu huratu
sedia > sendia > ha-ndia
Kambera has no plain voiced stops. If a borrowed word contains a plain voiced stop, it is replaced by a prenasalised stop:
Ibu > Imbu
bibit > mbibitu
rugi > runggi
bagi saya > mbagi nyungga
genap > ngganap

2.2.4 Phonotatic Adaptation
Kambera phonotaxis only allows prosodic words of the following shape:
Ca-CV(C) V-Cu,
Where:
 Ca- is a prefix (la, ka, ma, pa, ha, ta) with a fixed vowel /a/
 -Cu is a root-final consonant (p, t, h, r, l, ng) and [u] is a default, paragogic vowel
CV(C) V is the root form, which is the minimal phonological word:
 A trisyllabic borrowed word is thus reinterpreted as a disyllabic root, with a Ca-prefix:
pegawai > pa-nggawai
gereja > ka-renja
mengerti > ma-ngerti
sekolah > ha-kola
terima > ta-rima
 A word with more than 3 syllables does not fit into the template of a prosodic word.
There are two adaptation strategies for such words:
1. Delete one syllable, preferably the phonologically least prominent one (i.e. unstressed, or containing an underspecified vowel like schwa):
kategisasi ‘catechism lessons’ > ka-sasi (followed by segmental adapt ion s>h: ka-hahi)
pemerintah > pa-rinta

2. Reanalyse the word as a compound:
kategisasi > kata ka-sasi
 Kambera does not allow consonant clusters
Borrowed words with consonant cluster are adapted by reducing the cluster:
kantor > katuru
 The set of root-final consonants is a subset of the total set of consonants. Nasals in root-final position do not distinguish for place (i.e. no distinction between m, n, ng > only ng is allowed root-finally). The final nasal in borrowed words ending in m or n is neutralised to become ng:
hukum > hukung
 A glottal stop is not in the set of root-final consonants, but can appear within a root, between two consonants. An extra syllable is added to license the glottal stop:
Pak [pa’] > Pa’a
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aitchinson, Jean; M.A., A.M. 1972. General Linguistic. London: The English Universities Press.
Echols, John M. and Shadily, Hassan. 1998. An Indonesian – English Dictionary: Third Editon. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Haspelmath, Martin. 2002. Understanding Morphology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nasr, Raja T. 1978. The Essentials of Linguistic Science. Lebanon: Beirut University College.
O’Grady, William and Dobrovolsky, Michael. Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd.
Richards, Jack; Platt, John and Weber, Heidi. 1985. Longman Dictionary Aplied Dictionry.
Shibatani, Masayosi. Article: The Attrition Of The Austronesian Focus System.
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