On May 29, 1453, the seemingly impregnable walls of Constantinople, the last bastion of the Byzantine Empire, crumbled under the relentless siege of the Ottoman forces led by Sultan Mehmed II. The city's formidable defences, including the legendary Theodosian Walls, were no match for Mehmed's revolutionary use of artillery and meticulous strategies.
The Theodosian Walls, the most advanced defensive structure of their time, consisted of three layers: a moat, an outer wall, and an inner wall towering over the city's attackers. These walls had withstood centuries of sieges, but Mehmed's massive cannons, such as the "Basilica," fundamentally changed siege warfare. Designed by Hungarian engineer Orban, these cannons were colossal, capable of firing 600-kilogram stone projectiles over long distances. Day after day, the Ottoman artillery pounded the walls, creating breaches that even the most valiant Byzantine defenders struggled to repair.
The Dardanelles Gun is similar to bombards used by the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453. (British Royal Armouries collection)
In tandem with the artillery, the Ottomans established a naval blockade, targeting Constantinople's lifeline---the Golden Horn. The Byzantines' ultimate safeguard, the Golden Horn chain, stretched across the harbour's entrance, preventing Ottoman ships from entering. This massive barrier, floating above water on buoys, connected the fortified walls of Eminonu on the south side to the Galata Tower in the north, a feat of engineering that had protected the city for centuries.
Despite weeks of bombardment and the relentless pressure of Ottoman infantry, the Byzantines held firm, thanks to their strong fortifications and desperate resolve. But one decisive move in Mehmed's strategy would tip the scales: bypassing the Golden Horn chain.
The Brilliant Plan
The Golden Horn chain was a symbol of Byzantine ingenuity and resilience. Stretching above the water and supported by robust buoys, it had thwarted naval attacks for generations. Its anchors, now traceable to Eminonu and Galata, made it a vital line of defence. Breaking or bypassing it seemed impossible.
Mehmed II, however, saw opportunity in the impossible. To circumvent the chain, he devised a strategy to transport his fleet overland from the Bosporus to the Golden Horn, bypassing the chain entirely.
Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers. (Semhur)
The Overland Route
The operation began near Dolmabahce, a natural shoreline along the Bosporus, where Ottoman ships were pulled out of the water. Using greased logs, the fleet was hauled uphill toward Taksim Square and descended into the Kasimpasa valley, where the ships were re-launched into the Golden Horn. This path, approximately 1.5 to 3 kilometres, was carefully chosen for its manageable terrain.
The surrounding areas in 1453 were vastly different from today. Dolmabahce was a rocky shoreline, Taksim was covered in dense forests, and Kasimpasa was a marshy landing zone. These natural conditions provided both challenges and cover for the operation.